
ELDREDQE^Bf\0 



LIBRARY OF. CONGRESS. 



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! UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.! 



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Language Lessons 



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BEGINNERS. 



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BY JOHN S^HAET, LL.D., 

PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN 

THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY, LATE PRINCIPAL OF THE NEW JERSEY 

STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, AUTHOR OF A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS 

ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ETC., ETC. 




.fcoaoj^ 



PHILADELPHIA : 

ELDREDGE & BROTHER, 

17 North Seventh Street. 

1874. 



Turn. : 

A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS 

ON THE 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

By JOHN S. HART, LL.U. 

Language -Lessons for Beginners. 
English Grammar and Analysis. 
First Lessons in Composition. 
Composition and Rhetoric. 
A Short Course in Literature. 
A Manual of English Literature. 
A Manual of American Literature. 



**« *a^ v^g 

^ Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by £ 

1 ELDREDGE & BROTHER, j 

y in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. ^ 

f^ ^^ — •**&** 



^ J. FAGAN & SON, 

. - ELECTROTYPERS, PHILAD'A. * 

^rz: ^ ___ ^3K 




CAXT0N PRESS OF SHERMAN & CO. 




Preface. 



OO^OO 

WE all learn language, in the first instance, by imi- 
tation. If left, however, to this resource only, we 
can never gain full mastery over that wonderful instru- 
ment. To use it to the greatest advantage, we must 
give study to the instrument itself; and the earlier the 
study is begun, provided the method of study is rational, 
and suited to the. years and capacity of the scholar, the 
better for his general mental development. 

The book here presented is intended to be put into 
the hands of the scholar as soon as he is able to read 
and write. The method of teaching is chiefly by means 
of written exercises, and is similar in principle to that 
adopted in the First Lessons in Composition. The two 
books, in fact, should be began about the same time, 
and should be studied together. In the first two or 
three Lessons, the books are almost the same ; but 
they soon diverge and branch off into different lines of 

hi 



IV PREFACE. 

thought, one leading directly to the systematic study of 
Grammar, the other to a like study of Rhetoric. 

The young scholar who goes through the exercises in 
this book will have acquired thereby a habit, the edu- 
cational value of which can hardly be overstated, of 
noticing the character and functions of the words 
which he uses, and hence will be better prepared to use 
words rightly, and to understand better the force of 
words as used by others. He will also have laid a foun- 
dation for the study of English Grammar, as the exer- 
cises involve an acquaintance with the Parts of Speech, 
with the leading Grammatical forms, and with the 
principal terms employed in teaching Grammar. Clear 
notions on these points being thus early acquired, the 
study, when taken up systematically, wall not be such 
a painful and profitless ordeal as under the common 
system it often is. 

J. S. H. 

Princeton, April 21, 1874. 





Language Lessons. 



Nouns. 



-00>^< 



LESSON I. 

Written Exercises. 
1. Write your own name in full. 

Note. — Observe that your name in full is made up 
of two or more separate words. 

In writing your name, or the name of any other 
person, you should begin each word of the name with 
a capital letter. 

You must not put a comma, or a point of any kind, 

between the words that make up the name. Thus : 

John Edward Forsyth, not John, Edward, Forsyth. 

If one of the words that make up the name is not 
1* 5 



6 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

given in full, but only the first letter of it, then a 
period should be put after that letter, to show that it 
stands for the whole word. Thus : John E. Forsyth, 
or J. E. Forsyth. 

[Note to the Teacher. — The teacher should show the scholar 
how to make capitals, commas, and periods, and should see 
that the directions, as given in the notes, on this subject and 
on other subjects, are strictly carried out, so that the scholar 
may be trained from the very first to the habit of writing cor- 
rectly. 

The teacher should see also, in all the exercises, that the 
scholar spells the words correctly, and should show him how 
to use the dictionary in finding out the correct spelling.] 

2. Write in full the name of your father, your 
mother, your brothers, your sisters, or of your other 
relations, not less than five or six in all. 

Note. — In writing a number of names in this way, 
one after the other, put a comma after each full name, 
until you come to the last. Put a period after the 
last. Thus: John Edward Forsyth, Mary Forsyth, 
Elizabeth Benton, George Benton. The comma be.- 
tween the names serves to separate them. The period 
after the last name shows that the list is ended. 

3. Write in full the names of five of your school- 
mates or companions. 

4. Write in full the names of five persons that 
you have heard about, or that you have read about 
in story-books. 



NOUNS. 4 

5. Write the names of five persons that are men- 
tioned in the Bible. 

Note. — You observe that in the Bible the name of a 
person is usually only one word, instead of being made 
up of two or three words, as our names are nowadays. 

Commit to Memory. 
The name of any person is called a Noun. 

Oral Review. 
What is the name of any person called ? 



^k>>©=;< 



LESSON II. 

Examples. — Jon Thompson, Henery carey, Wil- 
iam, p Snyder 

Corrections. — In the first of these names, the first 
word of the name is spelled wrong ; it should be John. 

In the second name, the first word is spelled wrong ; 
it should be Henry ; and the second word should be- 
gin with a capital C. 

In the third name, the first word is spelled w r rong; 
it should be William, and there should not be a comma 
after it ; also the P, which stands for the middle name, 
should be written as a capital, and should have a 
period after it. 



8 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Also there should be a period after Snyder, because 
it is at the end of the whole list. 

The example should be written thus : — 

Correctly Written.— John Thompson, Henry Carey 
William P. Snyder. 

Written Exercises. 

The examples given below contain mistakes like 
those just explained. The scholar should bring the 
examples correctly written, and be prepared to explain 
the corrections orally, in the manner given above. 

1. Marey Lizebeth Chapman, Edwurd c Stokes, 
Tommas King, Gorge, Junkin 

2. Arrybela Stewart, Nickelus perkins, Henrey 
w Vail, Petur, simpson. 

3. Archebuld Alexander, Timmethy Pickering, 
Waltur Green, Suzan B, Hooper, David Baker 

4. Alferd Wright, Mathew Spencer, Josephene 
Thomas, Olliver Optic, Robbert Adair 

5. Arther Townsend, Clarra Lee, Phillip Bates, 
Laura Tompkins, Steven Emory. 

Mote — These names of persons, that you have been 
writing, are called Nouns. 

Oral Review. 
What is the name of any person called ? 



NOUNS. 9 

LESSON III. 

Written Exercises. 

1. Write the name of the city, town, or place 
that you live in. 

Note.- — In writing the names of cities, towns, or 
other places of that kind, the name of the place should 
always begin with a capital. 

Remember also that when you write a number of 
such names, one after the other, you must separate 
the names by a comma between them, and you must 
put a period after the last. 

2. Write the names of five cities, towns, or other 
places, that you have seen, or that you have heard 
about. 

3. Copy the following names of cities, correcting 
any mistakes in the spelling, or in regard to the 
commas and periods: Phillidelfy Washington 
chicawgo richmund bosten 

4. Write the names of five other places that you 
have read about in geography or history. 

5. Copy the following list of names, correcting 
the mistakes: Baltemore Eawlegh Charleston 
lunden parris 

Note. — Sometimes the name of a place is made up 
of two words. In that case, no comma should be put 
between the words ; as, New York, not New, York. 



10 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

6. Copy the following list of names, correcting 
the mistakes: new orleens san fransisco new 
haven new lundun saint lewis 

7. Write the names of five cities mentioned in 
the Bible. 

Note. — These names of places that you have been 
writing are called Nouns. 

Commit to Memory. 
The name of any place is called a Noun. 

Oral Review. 

What is the name of saij person called? 
What is the name of any place called ? 



•OO^OO- 



LESSON IV. 

Written Exercises. 

Write the following lists of names of places and 
persons, spelling the words properly, and using cap- 
itals, commas, and periods, as required in the previous 
directions : 

1. New Brunsick james plymoth frederick 
careline 



NOUNS. 11 

2. Easton charls solloman geruselam Long 
Branch 

3. James c donaldson Anapolis Theodore ben- 
jemin Rome 

4. Linchberg savanna robbert elisa hudson 

5. Prinston anna flemington Jersey City 
mozes 

"Note. — These names of persons and places which 
you have been writing are called Nouns. 

Oral Review. 

What is the name of any person called ? 
What is the name of any place called? 



<K)^( 



LESSON V. 

Written Exercises. 

1. Write the names of five things which you 
can see about the room. 

Note. — These names of ordinary things, which are 
not names of persons or places, should not begin with 
a capital, except the first one. In beginning any 
piece of writing, the first word, whatever it is, should 
always begin with a capital. 

2. Copy the following, correcting the spelling, 



12 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

and putting capitals, commas, or periods, where 
required : tung shuvel burd hors Cow 

3. Write the names of five parts of your body. 

4. Write the names of five things which you 
have seen, but which are not now in sight. 

5. Write the names of five things which you 
have never seen, but which you have heard about, 
or read about. 

Note.— These names of things, which you have been 
writing, are also called Nouns. 

The name of any person, place, or thing is called a 
Noun. 

Oral Review. 

What is the name of a person called? 
What is the name of a place called ? 
What is the name of a thing called ? 

Commit to Memory. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing. 

-s »o^O« 

LESSON VI. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy all the Nouns which you can find in the fol- 
lowing sentences, making the necessary corrections in 
regard to spelling, capitals, commas, and periods: 



NOUNS. 13 

1. The boy went into the Gardin to pick a 
flower, and was stung in the hand by a Bea 

2. The Cow broke through the gait and went 
into the yard, where she trampled on the grass and 
injured the frute 

3. The horse brought us from Salem in a wagon 
with one Seat 

4. My Ball is made of yarn, and is covered with 
lether ; my kite is made of paper, and is held by 
a String. 

5. My doll has black Hair and a red face ; the 
dress is made of Muslin, and the shoes are made 
of morocco 

Note. — These words which you have been writing 
are called Nouns. 

Oral Review. 
What is a Noun ? 

PROPER NOUNS AND COMMON NOUNS. 

LESSON VII. 

Explanations. — There are a great many boys in the 
world. Each of these boys has a name of his own ; 
he is called John, or James, or William, or some other 
particular name. This particular name, which each 



14 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

one has for his own, is called a Proper noun ; but the 
word boy, w T hich belongs equally to John and James 
and William and all others of that class, is called a 
Common noun. 

There are a great many cities in the world, and each 
city has a name of its own, as Washington, London, 
Paris. Each of these particular names is called a 
Proper noun ; but the word city, which belongs equally 
to all of them, is called a Common noun. 

So there are a great many countries, as the United 
States, England, France. Each of these particular 
names is called a Proper noun ; but the word country, 
which belongs equally to all of them, is called a Com- 
mon noun. 

So the word river is a Common noun, because it be- 
longs equally to all streams of that kind ; but the name 
of any particular river, as Delaware, Hudson, Potomac, 
is a Proper noun. 

So lake is a Common noun ; but Erie, Ontario, or 
the particular name of any one lake, is a Proper noun. 

Note. — A Proper noun should always begin with a 
capital. A Common noun should not begin with a 
capital, unless it is the first word in a piece of writing. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the following lists of nouns, making the neces- 
sary corrections in regard to spelling, commas, and 
periods, and showing which are Proper nouns by be- 
ginning them with capitals : 



NOUNS. 15 

1. Galveston rice cotton louisville corn 

2. pensilvania coal susquehana iron harris- 
burg 

3. easton hartferd albeny canal mountain 

4. Carolina georgia tree apple water 

5. springfield Illinois tea coffee tobaco 

Commit to Memory. 

Nouns are divided into two classes, Proper and 
Common. 

A Proper noun is the particular name given to 
only one of a class of objects. 

A Common noun is a name which belongs 
equally to any one of a class of objects. 

John, London, Delaware are Proper nouns; boy, 

city, river are Common nouns. 

/ 

Oral Review. 
What is a noun ? 

Into what two classes are nouns divided ? 
What is a Proper noun ? 
What is a Common noun ? 

Which of these should always begin with a capital ? 
Mention three nouns which are Proper. 
Mention three which are Common. 

[Note to the Teacher. — In the lessons after this, no exercises 
will be given with the view of correcting mistakes in spelling, 
capitals, and punctuation. Constant vigilance should be used, 
however, by the teacher, to see that the exercises handed in 
are correct in these particulars.] 



16 LANGUAGE LESSONS 



LESSON VIII 



The nouns which you have had thus far are mostly 
names of things which we can see or handle. But 
there are many things which we cannot see or handle, 
yet we know them to exist. We say, the man has a 
pain in his head. The word pain is the name of some- 
thing that exists, though we cannot see it. 

A word like this is known to be a noun, if it makes 
sense when we put a before it, or an, or the; or when 
we put before it this or that, or such words as good, 
bad, great, small, &c. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the nouns in the following sentences : 

1. The boy has a bad temper; this morning he 
was in a great rage. 

2. The air is cooler on the top of the hill than 
in the bottom of the valley. 

3. We have good weather this summer; a large 
quantity of rain has fallen ; the crop of grain is 
abundant. 

4. John Simpson this afternoon came from New 
Brunswick to Princeton, in a wagon, with a bag 
full of apples. 

5. The light of the sun gladdens the heart. 

6. The man had great sorrow at the news of the 
death of his son. 



NOUNS. 17 



Oral Review. 
Repeat the questions on page 15. 



^-oXKoo- 



SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

LESSON IX. 

The word apple means only one apple, and is said 
to be in the Singular number ; the word apples means 
more than one, and is said to be in the Plural num- 
ber. 

Nearly all nouns may be changed from the Singular 
to the Plural by adding s, or from the Plural to the 
Singular by dropping s. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the nouns in the following sentences, giving 
both the Singular and the Plural of each noun : 

1. The way from home to school is one mile in 
length. 

2. The width of the table is one yard. 

3. The stars at night give light to travellers on 
the road. 

4. The vine is full of grapes, the tree is laden 
with plums. 

5. The heart of the boy is filled with sorrow ; 

2* B 



18 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

the thoughts of his mind are about his father, 
his mother, his brothers and sisters. 

Commit to Memory. 

Nouns have two Numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural. 

The Plural of nouns is generally formed by 
adding s to the Singular. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on page 15. 
How many Numbers do nouns have ? 
How is the Plural generally formed? 



-<K)^ 



LESSON X. 

The Plural of church is not churchs, but churches; 
it is formed, not by adding s, but by adding es. So 
the Plural of atlas is atlases, the Plural of lash is lashes, 
the Plural of box is boxes, and the Plural of topaz is 
topazes. So, generally, the Plural of nouns ending in 
ch, s, sh, x, or z, is formed by adding es. 

So, also, a great many, but not all, nouns ending in 
o form their Plural by adding es; as, potato, potatoes. 

Written Exercises. 

Write the Singular and Plural of all the nouns in 
the following sentences: 



NOUNS. 19 

1. A bird was sitting on a branch of the tree 
with a twig in his mouth. 

2. The box contained a sash fastened with a 
brooch. 

3. The miss went to church in the morning and 
to school in the afternoon. 

4. The boy had in his hand a tomato and a 
peach. 

5. It is of little use for a scholar to remember 
the words of a rule, if he does not remember the 
meaning. 

Commit to Memory, 

Nouns ending in eh, s, sh, x, or z, and many 
ending in o, form the Plural by adding es. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on page 15. 
How many Numbers do nouns have ? 
How is the Plural generally formed ? 
What nouns form the Plural by adding es t 



■oo^oo- 



LESSON XL 

The Plural of loaf is not loafs, but loaves; the / is 
changed into ves. So the Plural of life is lives; the 
fe is changed into ves. So, generally, nouns ending 



20 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

in for in/e, form the Plural by changing the /or fe 
into ves. 

Written Exercises. 

Write the Singular and Plural of all the nouns in 
the following sentences : 

1. The leaf of some kinds of plants is good for 
the cure of disease. 

2. The half of a loaf is better than no bread. 

3. The thief had broken into the cargo, and 
stolen a great mass of valuable articles. 

4. The farmer and his wife came to church in a 
carriage drawn by two horses. 

5. A life of sin is a reproach, and brings sorrow. 

Commit to Memory. 

Nouns ending in / or in fe form the Plural by 
changing the / or fe into ves. 

Oral Review. 

Eepeat the questions on page 15. 

How many Numbers do nouns have ? 

How is the Plural of nouns generally formed ? 

What nouns form the Plural by adding es f 

What nouns have the Plural in vesf 




NOUNS. 21 

LESSON XII. 

A good many nouns do not form their Plurals in 
any of the ways which have been mentioned. You 
will learn about all these hereafter, in another book. 
The following nine are all that you need to study just 
now. 

Commit to Memory. 

Singular. Plural. 

Man men 

Woman women 

Child children 

Ox oxen 

Foot feet 

Tooth teeth 

Goose geese 

Louse lice 

Mouse mice. 

Written Exercises. 

Write the Singular and Plural of all the nouns in 
the following sentences : 

1. I saw a squirrel on the fence eating nuts with 
his teeth. 

2. The ox after drinking water in the brook 
went into the meadow. 

3. Mice have fur, geese have feathers, men have 
hair. 



22 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

4. The ox bears a yoke and draws a plough, 
which cuts a furrow in the field. 

5. The child has thoughts of love in her heart 
for her father and mother. 

6. The man and woman lived in a cottage at 
the foot of the hill by a stream of water. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on page 15. 
How many Numbers do nouns have? 
How is the Plural of nouns generally formed ? 
What nouns form the Plural by adding es f 
What nouns have the Plural in ves-f 
Give the Singular and Plural of nine nouns which 
form the Plural irregularly. 



-OO^OO- 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

LESSON XIII. 

When we wish to speak of something as belonging 
to some one, we have two ways of saying it. We say, 
for instance, " The cradle of the child/' or " The 
child's cradle." In either case, we mean the cradle 
of which the child is the occupier, owner, or possessor. 

You notice, in the second form of expression, that 
the word child has after it, not only s, but this mark \ 



NOUNS. 23 

which we call the apostrophe. The apostrophe and s 
added to a noun give the idea of possession. The 
word child's, or any other noun in this form, is not in 
the Plural, but in the Possessive. By the words, 
" The child's cradle," we mean the cradle of which 
the child is the occupier, owner, or possessor. 

A noun in this form is said to be in the Possessive 
Case. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the following sentences, changing in each 
sentence the form of expression so as to put one of 
the nouns in the Possessive case : 

1. The cottage of the farmer is near the mill. 

2. The love of the child for her mother is very 
great. 

3. We all need the mercy of God. 

4. Do not provoke the anger of the dog. 

5. The nest of the bird is built of twigs. 

Copy the following sentences, changing the Posses- 
sive form to the other form : 

1. The squirrel's teeth are sharp. 

2. We saw the horse's hoof. 

3. The murderer took the man's life. 

4. The boy's hat is too large for him. 

5. Solomon's proverbs are full of wisdom. 



24 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 



LESSON XIV. 

The words, " The squirrel's teeth," mean the teeth of 
one squirrel. But suppose we wish to speak of the 
teeth of several squirrels, and to put the expression in 
the Possessive form. In such a case, we take the 
plural form, squirrels, which already has s at the end, 
and we add the apostrophe only, without another s. 

"Squirrel's teeth," with the apostrophe before the s, 
means teeth of a squirrel. 

" Squirrels' teeth," with the apostrophe after the s, 
means teeth of squirrels. 

That is, if the noun is in the plural, and on this ac- 
count has already an s at the end, it is not necessary 
to put another s. The Possessive, in such cases, is 
formed by adding the apostrophe only. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the following sentences, changing, in each 
sentence, the form of expression so as to put one or 
more of the nouns in the Possessive case : 

1. Houses of farmers are built for comfort. 

2. The house of the farmer is built for comfort. 

3. The boy had in his hand the nest of a bird. 

4. The boy had his hands full of nests of birds. 

5. The love of the boy for his sisters was equal 
to the love of the sisters for him. 



nouns. 25 

Commit to Memory. 

The Possessive singular of nouns is formed by 
adding the apostrophe and s. 

The Possessive plural is formed by adding s only, 
if the plural already ends in s. 

Oral Review. 

Eepeat the questions on pages 15 and 22. 

How is the Possessive Singular of nouns formed ? 

How is the Possessive Plural formed ? 



-00>©<00- 



LESSON XV. 

The word men is plural, though it does not end in 
s. The Possessive of men, therefore, is men's; it is 
formed by adding both the apostrophe and s. 

Whenever the plural of a noun does not end in an 
s of its own, the Possessive must be formed in this way, 
that is, by adding s as well as the apostrophe. 

The words which do not end in an s of their own in 
the plural have been given already on page 21. 

Repeat them. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the following sentences, changing, in each 
sentence, the form of the expression, so as to put one 
or more of the nouns in the Possessive case : 
3 



26 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

1. The hole of the mice was long and narrow. 

2. The strength of two oxen is greater than the 
strength of one ox. 

3. The playtime of children is much prized by 
them. 

4. Bones of dogs and a tooth of a serpent were 
found in the cavern. 

5. Food of oxen is different from food of men. 

Commit to Memory. 

The Possessive of the plurals men, women, chil- 
dren, oxen, feet, teeth, geese, lice, and mice, is formed 
by adding both the apostrophe and s. 

Oral Review. 

What is a noun ? 

Into what two classes are nouns divided ? 
What is a Proper noun ? 
What is a Common noun ? 

Which of these should alwa} r s begin with a Capital ? 
Mention three nouns which are Proper. 
Mention three which are Common. 
How many Numbers do nouns have? 
How is the Plural of nouns generally formed? 
What nouns form the Plural in vesf 
Give the Singular and Plural of nine nouns which 
form the Plural irregularly? 

How is the Possessive singular of nouns formed ? 
How is the Possessive plural formed ? 



nouxs. 27 

What nine plurals form their Possessive by adding 
both the apostrophe and s ? 

[Note to the Teacher. — At this point, particularly if the 
pupil is quite young, it will be best to put him back to Lesson 
I., and let him go again through all the Exercises, by way of 
review. By giving him time thus to become perfectly familiar 
with the ideas already acquired, you will prevent his becoming 
confused, when the new ideas about Adjectives are introduced.] 





Adjectives. 



-00>©<00=- 



LESSON XVI. 

When we say, " a good pen," the word good is added 
or joined to pen, to describe it, or tell what kind of a 
pen it is. So we say, a hard stone, a straight stick, a 
long string. 

These words which are added or joined to nouns 
to describe the things named, are called Adjectives. 
The word Adjective means added. An Adjective is 
an added word. 

Sometimes a noun has several of these added words ; 
as, a straight, smooth, and light stick. 



Written Exercises. 

Copy the adjectives in the following sentences, and 
tell the noun which each is added to or describes : 

1. A big black dog ran through the street, and 
bit a small sickly child. 

28 



ADJECTIVES. 29 

2. A strong cord is needed for tying heavy 
articles. 

3. A narrow path led up to a high hill where 
the young children were gathering many kinds of 
fruits. 

4. A cool stream of sparkling water came from 
the dark, shady dell. 

5. She remembers with warm affection the nu- 
merous and important benefits received from her 
dear mother. 

Copy all the nouns in the foregoing sentences, giving 
the singular and the plural of each. 

Commit to Memory. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun to 
qualify or describe it. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on page 26. 
What is an Adjective? 



-OOj^OO- 



LESSON XVII. 

A red apple. Here red is an adjective, a word 
added or joined to apple to describe it, or tell what 
kind of apple it is. There are many other adjectives 
3* 



30 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

which may in the same way be joined to apple. Thus 
we may say, ripe apple, sweet apple, sour apple, round 
apple, small apple, large apple. 

What are some of the adjectives which we may thus 
use with the word stone f 

Ans. Hard, soft, smooth, flat, heavy. 

Written Exercises. 
Write five adjectives for each of the following nouns : 

1. Bread. 6. Knife. 

2. Butter. 7. Marble. 

3. Grape. 8. Cherry. 

4. Peach. 9. Ball. 

5. Melon. 10. Kitten. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on page 26. 
What is an Adjective? 



o-o^Q^OO- 



LESSON XVIII. 

The adjective does not always stand immediately 
before the noun which it qualifies or describes. Thus 
we may say, The sweet apple, or, The apple is sweet. 
In either case, the word "sweet" qualifies or describes 
" apple." 



ADJECTIVES. 31 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the adjectives in the following sentences, and 
tell what noun each adjective qualifies or describes: 

1. A large black horse was prancing in the 
beautiful meadow. 

2. A gentle stream of clear, cool water is a pleas- 
ant sight in warm weather. 

3. The sun was bright, the air which fanned the 
girl's cheek was pleasant and bracing. 

4. The sorrel horse is swift but sure. 

5. A large flock of noisy geese are in the lower 
pond. 

Copy all the nouns in the foregoing sentences, 
giving the singular and the plural of each. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on page 26. 
What is an adjective? 



-<X>>©<CK>- 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 
LESSON XIX. 

In the expression, "The old man," we know that 
" old " is an adjective, describing " man." But this 



32 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

word "old" sometimes takes another form. Thus we 
say, "The man is older than he was," or, "The man 
is older than his wife." The adjective "old" has here 
taken a new form, by adding er. In this new form, it 
is used to express comparison. We compare the man's 
age now with his age formerly, or we compare his age 
with his wife's age. 

When an adjective thus adds er to express a com- 
parison, it is said to be in the Comparative Degree. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the adjectives in the following sentences, but 
putting each adjective in the Comparative degree and 
telling what noun it qualifies : 

1. The old scholar has a long lesson. 

2. They went by a short road to the new school- 
house. 

3. He had a brave dog and a fast horse. 

4. Clean hands and a pure heart. 

5. Steel is hard and bright. 

Copy all the noun§ in the foregoing sentences, giv- 
ing the singular and the plural of each. 




ADJECTIVES. 33 

LESSON XX. 

When we say a man is older, we express a higher 
degree of age than when we say simply that he is old. 
But we wish sometimes to express this idea in the 
highest degree. Then we say, he is oldest 

The addition of est to an adjective makes it express 
a quality in the highest degree. An adjective in 
this form is said to be in the Superlative Degree. 

Thus, we see that " old " has three forms, old, older, 
oldest The word "old" is said to be in the Positive 
degree, " older " in the Comparative, and " oldest " in 
the Superlative. 

Nearly all adjectives have these three forms, which 
are called Degrees of Comparison. 

The Comparative is usually formed by adding er to 
the Positive ; the Superlative is formed by adding est 

Written Exereises. 

Examples. — Old, older, oldest; large, larger, largest; 
bright, brighter, brightest. 

Copy all the adjectives in the following sentence, 
and give to each adjective its three forms of Positive, 
Comparative, and Superlative, as in the preceding 
examples : 

The young children came home at a late hour 
in the afternoon, by the shortest road. They were 
in high spirits, and full of mirth. They were in 
a new wagon, drawn by a strong, black horse. 

C 



34 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Copy all the nouns in the foregoing sentences, giv- 
ing the singular and the plural of each. 

Commit to Memory. 

Adjectives have three degrees of Comparison, 
called Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

The Comparative degree of an adjective is gen- 
erally formed by adding er to the Positive ; the 
Superlative is formed by adding est. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on page 26. 

What is an adjective? 

What Degrees of Comparison do adjectives have? 

How is the Comparative degree usually formed ? 

How is the Superlative formed ? 



■<K)^CH>- 



LESSON XXI. 

Many adjectives, particularly those which are long, 
form the Comparative and Superlative by prefixing 
the words more and most, instead of adding er and 
est Thus : numerous, more numerous, most numerous. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy all the adjectives in the following sentences, 
and give to each adjective its three forms, Positive, 
Comparative, and Superlative : 



ADJECTIVES. 35 

A studious scholar has frequent occasion of show- 
ing whether he is careful or careless. If you would 
make rapid progress, you must not shrink from 
difficult lessons. A diligent and orderly scholar 
is a beautiful sight. 

Copy all the nouns in the foregoing sentences, giv- 
ing the singular and the plural of each. 

Commit to Memory. 

Many adjectives form the Comparative and 
Superlative by prefixing more and most 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on page 26. 
What is an adjective ? 

What Degrees of Comparison do adjectives have ? 
How is the Comparative Degree usually formed ? 
How is the Superlative formed ? 
In what other way do many adjectives form the 
Comparative and Superlative ? 



-<X>>^< 



LESSON XXII. 

The words by which we count, as one, two, three, 
four, five, &c, also first, second, third, fourth, fifth, &c, 
are called Numerals. They are adjectives, but they 



36 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

have no degrees of comparison, like the adjectives 
which you have already been studying. 

Many other adjectives have no degrees of compari- 
son, because their meaning does not admit of more or 
less. Thus : The English language, the starry heavens, 
a wooden bench. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly : 

Commit to Memory, 



Positive. 

Good 


Comparative. 

better 


Superlative, 

best 


Bad 


worse 


worst 


Little 


less 


least 


Much 


more 


most 


Many 


more 


most. 



Many other adjectives are compared irregularly, 
but these five are all that you need learn at present. 

Adjectives ending in y, change the y into i when er 
or est is added. Thus : happy, happier, happiest. 

Comparing an adjective means giving its three 
forms, Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy all the adjectives in the following sentences, 
comparing those adjectives which admit of comparison, 
and telling what noun each adjective describes or 
qualifies : 

At the second landing, as they were going down 
the swift current, at the rate of six miles an hour, 



ADJECTIVES. 37 

thirty additional passengers entered the crowded 
boat. Much alarm seized the merry group, but by 
the good sense and praiseworthy conduct of the 
captain, the panic at length subsided. 

Copy all the nouns in the foregoing sentences, giving 
the singular and the plural of each. 

Oral Review. 

Kepeat the questions on page 26. 

What is an adjective? 

What Degrees of Comparison do adjectives have? 

How is the Comparative Degree usually formed ? 

How is the Superlative formed ? 

In what other way do many adjectives form the 
Comparative and Superlative ? 

What adjectives are called Numerals? 

Are Numerals compared ? 

Mention some other adjectives which are not com- 
pared. 

What five adjectives are compared irregularly? 
Compare them. 

When er or est is added to adjectives ending in y, 
what change takes place ? 

[To the Teacher. — At this point, the scholars should turn 
back to Lesson XVI., and go over again all the intervening 
Lessons.] 
4 

4) 





Pronouns. 



-<x>>Q><cx>- 



LESSON XXIII. 



"Robert went into the field; Robert was seen 
there." 

This is much improved by saying : " Robert went 
into the field ; he was seen there." The word " he" 
which is there put for the noun " Robert," is called a 
Pronoun. " Pro " means "for"; hence "Pro-noun" 
means " for a noun." 

A Pronoun is a word which is used for a noun, or 
instead of a noun. 

" When Mary reached school, Mary began studying 
the lesson." Better thus : " When Mary reached school, 
she began studying the lesson." " She " is a Pronoun ; 
it stands for the noun " Mary." 

" The ball fell on the floor, and Henry picked the 
ball up" Better thus: "The ball fell on the floor, 
and Henry picked it up." " It " is a Pronoun, and 
stands for the noun "ball." 

38 



PRONOUNS. 39 

Note. — Adjectives qualify or describe pronouns, as 
well as nouns. The boy was good ; " good " describes 
" boy." He was good ; " good " describes " he." 

Commit to Memory. 
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun. 

Written Exercises. 

Example. — We saw a man in the field; he was 
ploughing it. 

" He " is a pronoun, used instead of " man." 
" It " is a pronoun, used instead of " field." 
Copy all the pronouns in the following sentences, 
telling what noun each one stands for, or is used in- 
stead of: 

1. The young boy said he would study the lesson, 
though it was hard. 

2. The girl forgot the new book ; so she ran 
back for it. 

3. When scholars are late, they are kept in after 
school. 

4. If soldiers disobey the captain, he punishes 
them. 

5. The unruly cows have broken into the 
meadow; they must be driven out of it. 

Copy all the nouns in the foregoing sentences, giving 
the singular and the plural of each. 

Copy all the adjectives, comparing those which 



40 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

admit of comparison, and telling the noun or pronoun 
which each adjective describes. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on pages 26 and 37. 
What is a Pronoun ? 



GENDER. 

LESSON XXIV. 

When we wish to use a pronoun for the name of a 
man, a boy, or any animal of the male sex, we say 
"he." 

When we wish to use a pronoun for the name of a 
woman, a girl, or any animal of the female sex, we 
say " she." 

When we wish to use a pronoun for the name of 
anything which is neither male nor female, and 
which has no sex, we say " it." 

This distinction in regard to sex is called Gender. 

" He " is said to be of the Masculine gender ; " she," 
of the Feminine ; and " it," of the Neuter. 

"Neuter" means neither. The pronoun "it" is 
called Neuter, because it is neither Masculine nor 
Feminine. 

What has been said of the genders of the pronouns, 



PRONOUNS. 41 

is true also of nouns. Names of persons or of animals 
of the male sex are Masculine ; names of persons or 
of animals of the female sex are Feminine ; names of 
things without sex are Neuter. 

Sometimes we speak of persons or of animals with- 
out thinking of their sex, or without knowing it. Thus 
we speak of a child, a servant, a scholar. These 
words are said to be of the Common gender. The 
objects named are either male or female, but we are 
not certain which. They may be either. 

Commit to Memory. 

Gender is the distinction of words in regard to 
sex. 

Nouns and Pronouns have three genders. Mascu- 
line, Feminine, and Neuter. 

The Masculine gender denotes the male sex ; the 
Feminine, the female sex ; the Neuter, whatever 
is without sex. 

A word is of the Common gender when the 
object named may be either male or female. 

"Written Exercises. 

Copy all the nouns in the following sentences, and 
tell the gender of each. 

Copy all the pronouns ; tell the gender of each, and 
the noun for which it stands. 

1 . The lesson was difficult for the girl, but she 
learned it. 
4* 



42 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

2. The boy did not receive the reward, but he 
deserved it. 

3. The man had a poor memory, yet he im- 
proved it by continual practice. 

4. If a cow gives much milk, she brings a high 
price. 

5. When the unruly ox was drawing the cart, 
he upset it. 

Copy all the adjectives in the foregoing sentences, 
comparing those which admit of comparison, and tell- 
ing what noun or pronoun each adjective qualifies or 
describes. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on pages 26 and 37. 
What is a Pronoun ? 
What is Gender ? 

How many Genders do nouns and pronouns have ? 
What does the Masculine gender denote ? what the 
Feminine ? what the Neuter ? 

When is a word of the Common gender ? 



CASE. 

LESSON XXV. 

The pronouns have a Possessive form, just as the 
nouns do. 



PRONOUNS. 43 

" It was Walter's book, not Mary's." 

" It was his book, not hers." 

Here "his" stands for "Walter's," and "hers" 
stands for " Mary's." 

These pronouns have also a third form, him and 
her. 

" He and she were on the way to school." 

" We saw him and her on the way to school." 

Each of these pronouns, then, has three forms ; he, 
his, him; she, hers, her. 

Note. — The possessive hers is also written her. 

The pronoun it has a possessive form its, but is not 
otherwise changed. 

These forms are called Cases. The names of the 
Cases are Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. 

Commit to Memory. 

Nom. he, Poss. his, Obj. him; Nona, she, Poss. 
her or hers, Obj. her; Nom. it, Poss. its, Obj. it. 

Nouns likewise are said to have these three cases. 
But the only one you can know by its form is the 
Possessive. For the present, therefore, in writing 
nouns, you need not give the case unless it is in the 
Possessive. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy all the nouns in the following sentences, and 
tell the gender of each, and the case if it is in the 
Possessive. 



44 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Copy all the pronouns, and tell the gender and case 
of each. 

1. The girPs face was flushed; she could not 
conceal her anger. 

2. The father told his boys to bring the book to 
him and lay it on the table. 

3. The mother asked her daughters to read the 
lesson aloud to her until it was learned. 

4. Lucy w T et her feet in crossing the brook ; she 
should not have attempted to cross it until she had 
learned its depth. 



>*»<< 



LESSON XXVI. 

In the plural the pronoun is the same for all three 
genders. 

" The men have come ; they are in the parlor." 
" The women have come ; they are in the parlor." 
"The books have come; they are in the parlor." 
Here " they " stands, first for " men/' which is 
masculine ; then for " women," which is feminine ; 
then for " books," which is neuter. 

The plural, then, is the same for all three genders, 
Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter ; and this plural 
has three forms, or Cases, namely, Nominative they, 
Possessive their or theirs, Objective them. 



PRONOUNS. 45 

"Written Exercises. 

Copy all the nouns in the following sentences, and 
tell the gender, and number of each, and the case if 
it is in the Possessive. 

Copy all the pronouns, and tell the gender, number, 
and case of each. 

1. A youth's best guide is his Bible. 

2. Edward brought his books into the school 
and laid them on the table. 

3. The birds built their nests among the 
branches. 

4. The lady taught her daughters that they 
should be careful of their manners. 

5. Emma said the bag was hers ; she had bought 
it. The other girls said it was theirs. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on pages 26 and 37. 

What is a pronoun? 

What is gender ? 

How many genders do nouns and pronouns have ? 

What does the masculine gender denote ? what the 
feminine ? what the neuter ? 

When is a word of the common gender ? 

Which pronoun is masculine ? which is feminine ? 
which is neuter ? 

How many forms has each of these pronouns ? 

What are these forms called ? 

What are the names of the cases ? 

Give the cases of he ; of she ; of it, (p. 43.) 

Give the cases in the plural, (p. 44.) 



46 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 



LESSON XXVII. 

Besides the pronouns which you have been study- 
ing, there are others which you ought now to learn. 

" The man said to his comrades, I will return pres- 
ently." Here " I " is a pronoun, standing for " man." 

" Nathan said to David, thou art the man." Here 
" thou " is a pronoun, standing for " David." 

Thus we have two new pronouns, /and thou. These 
have cases and numbers, the same as the other pro- 
nouns which you have been studying. 

Commit to Memory. 

Singular, Nom. I, Poss. my or mine, Obj. me; 
Plural, Nona, we, Poss. our or ours, Obj. us. 

Singular, Nom. thou, Poss. thy or thine, Obj. 
thee ; Plural, Nom. you, Poss. your or yours, Obj. 
you. 

The gender of these pronouns depends upon the 
nouns for which they stand. 

" David said, I will do it." " I " is masculine. 

" Mary said, I will do it." " I " is feminine. 

" He said to the boys, you must do it." " You " is 
masculine. 

" He said to the girls, you must do it." " You " is 
feminine. 

Note. — The pronoun I is always written as a Cap- 
ital. 



PRONOUNS. 47 

Written Exercises. 

Copy all the nouns in the following sentences, and 
tell the gender and number of each, and the case if it 
is in the Possessive. 

Copy all the pronouns, and tell the gender, number, 
and case of each. 

Copy all the adjectives, telling whether each is posi- 
tive, comparative, or superlative, and what noun or 
pronoun it qualifies or describes. 

Notice that some of the nouns are of the Common 
gender. 

1. Elizabeths opinion is wrong, if she thinks 
my father is not a good man. 

2. Some pupils' attention is easily diverted. 
They allow it to wander on the slightest occasion. 
Do you cultivate the habit of close attention ? 

3. Children, you have good reason for loving 
your parents. 

4. Few animals are fonder of play than kittens 
and lambs. We often see them playing by the 
hour. 

5. Our lessons must be attended to first. When 
you have learned yours, and I have learned mine, 
we will go to the farmer's house, and pay him a 
visit. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on pages 26, 37, and 45. 
Give the numbers and cases of I and thou, (p. 46.) 



48 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

PERSON. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

I, thou, he, she, and it are called Personal Pro- 
nouns. 

jT is said to be of the First Person. 

Thou is said to be of the Second Person. 

He, she, and it are said to be of the Third Person. 

The First Person means the one speaking. 

The Second Person means the one spoken to. 

The Third Person means what is spoken of. 

These rules about Person apply to nouns as well as 
to pronouns. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the pronouns in the following sentences, telling 
the person, gender, number, and case of each. 

Copy the nouns, telling the person, gender, and num- 
ber of each, and the case if it is in the Possessive. 

Copy the adjectives, telling whether each is positive, 
comparative, or superlative, and what noun or pro- 
noun it qualifies or describes. 

1. We had wild horses and they took fright. 
The carriage was upset, but being new and strong 
it was not broken. My mother and I escaped 
without material injury. George's left arm was 
broken. 

2. Scholars, if you wish to improve in your 
studies, you must be diligent. 



PRONOUNS. 49 

3. When the old hen saw the boys coming, she 
left her nest and ran away. They found in it six- 
teen eggs. 

4. Frederick said to his parents, " I wish you 
would let me go and hunt for my sister : I fear 
she will be lost." 

5. My brother's face was radiant with joy; he 
had found a bird's nest, and it was full of eggs. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on pages 26, 37, and 45. 

What kind of pronouns are I, thou, he, she, and it 
called? 

Of what Person is If thouf he, she, and itf 

What does the First Person mean? the Second 
Person ? the Third Person ? 



-oo>@4oo- 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

LESSON XXIX. 

" The man who is in the next room." Here " who " 
is a pronoun, standing for " man." 

" The book which lies on the table." Here " which " 
is a pronoun, standing for " book." 

" This is exactly what I wanted." Here " what " 
5 D 



50 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

is a pronoun, standing for " the thing which." The 
meaning is, This is exactly the thing which I wanted. 

Thus we have three new pronouns, who, which, and 
what. 

The pronouns which you have learned before are 
called Personal pronouns. These three, who, which, 
and what, are called Relative pronouns. The mean- 
ing of this name you will learn hereafter, in another 
book. 

Who has three cases, Nominative who, Possessive 
whose, Objective whom; and is the same in both num- 
bers. 

Which has a Possessive whose, but is otherwise un- 
changed. 

What has no change for case or number. 

The Person, Gender, and Number of the Relative 
pronouns are learned from the words for which they 
stand. 

The man who ; " who " is third person, masculine, 
singular. 

The women who; "who" is third person, feminine, 
plural. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the pronouns in the following sentences, tell- 
ing whether they are Personal or Relative, and giving 
the person, gender, number, and case of each. 

Copy the nouns, telling whether they are proper or 
common, and giving the person, gender, and number 
of each, and the case if it is in the Possessive. 

Copy the adjectives, telling whether each is positive, 



PRONOUNS. 51 

comparative, or superlative, and what noun or pro- 
noun each qualifies or describes. 

[Note to the Teacher. — If Adjective pronouns occur in any 
of the Exercises, the scholars may write them simply as adjec- 
tives.] 

1. The rude men who came into the front yard 
were in search of the old cow. They found her 
behind the barn. 

2. Henry's mind was much excited ; he ex- 
claimed, in the greatest glee, I have found my 
new sled. 

3. The farmer's crops, which he gathers in sum- 
mer, are most important to him and his family in 
winter. 

4. The father said to the boys, if any of you 
who were there saw what was done, tell me 
about it. 

5. The mother said to the girls, if any of you 
who were there saw what was done, tell me 
about it. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on pages 26, 37, 45, and 49. 
What three words are called Relative pronouns ? 
What cases has who f give them. 
What change of form does which have ? 
Has what any change ? 

On what do the person, gender, and number of the 
Relative pronouns depend ? 



52 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

LESSON XXX. 
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

This book. Here " this " is added to a noun, and 
therefore is either an adjective, or something very 
much like it. 

The words of this kind are generally called Adjec- 
tive Pronouns. 

There are a good many of these Adjective Pronouns. 
All of them that you need learn now are the follow- 
ing : 

Commit to Memory. 

This, that. Each, every. 

These, those. Either, neither. 

ARTICLES. 

Two other small words, a and the, are called 
Articles. 

The Articles are added to nouns, just as adjectives 
are. 

A is sometimes written an. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the nouns in the following sentences, telling 
whether they are proper or common, and giving the 
person, gender, and number of each, and the case if 
it is in the Possessive. 



PRONOUNS. 53 

Copy the pronouns, telling whether they are per- 
sonal or relative, and giving the person, gender, num- 
ber, and case of each. 

Copy the Adjective pronouns and the Articles, and 
tell to what noun each is added. 

Copy the adjectives, telling whether each is posi- 
tive, comparative, or superlative, and to what noun it 
is added. 

1. Margaret said to her brothers, you spent a 
long time in my sister's house. 

2. During that summer, each of us every day 
told some amusing story of his early life. 

3. When I had finished my dinner, I laid me 
down on my mother's lounge, and took a good, 
long nap. 

4. Those nuts, which you brought into the 
house in the boy's satchel, were worthless. 

5. William's horse had a poor saddle, so I took 
that saddle off and put on mine. He thanked 
me, and said, I am much obliged to you* 

Oral Review. 

What is a pronoun ? 
What is gender ? 

How many genders do nouns and pronouns have ? 
What does the masculine gender denote? what the 
feminine ? what the neuter ? 

When is a word of the common gender ? 
5* 



54 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Which pronoun is masculine? which feminine? 
which neuter ? 

How many forms has each of these pronouns ? 

What are these forms called ? 

What are the names of the cases ? 

Give the cases of he; of she; of it; of they. 

What kind of pronouns are I, thou, he, she, and it 
called ? 

Of what person is If thouf he, she, and itt 

Give the cases, singular and plural, of J; of thou. 

What does the first person mean ? the second per- 
son ? the third person ? 

What three words are called relative pronouns ? 

What cases has who t Give them. 

What change of form does which have? 

Has Wta£ any change? 

On what does the person, gender, and number of 
the relative pronouns depend ? 

What eight words are called adjective pronouns? 

What two words are called articles ? 

Repeat the questions on pages 26 and 37. 

[Note to the Teacher. — At this point, the scholar should turn 
back to Lesson XXIII., and go over again all the intervening 
Lessons. Having thus reviewed the chapter on Pronouns, if 
he is quite young, or if he seems at all confused or uncertain 
in his notions on the subject, it will be not amiss for him to 
begin again at the beginning of the book, and give a second 
review of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, before entering 
on the study of Verbs.] 





Verbs 



^ott< 



LESSON XXXI. 

The boy laughs. The boy writes a letter. The boy 
is a student. The boy is good. 

In these sentences, if we leave out the words laughs, 
writes, and is, nothing is told about the boy. These 
words are needed to tell what the boy does, or what 
he is. 

A word which is thus needed to tell that one does 
something, or that one is something, is called a Verb. 

Laughs, writes, and is are Verbs. 



Written Exercises. 
Copy the verbs in the following sentences : 

1. Rebecca saw the procession and told her 
mother everything about it. 

2. Peter digs potatoes in the garden. 

3. My father is an early riser. 

55 



56 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

4. I rested all that night, and rose next morn- 
ing at the break of day. 

5. Those men are sincere. 

Copy in separate lists all the nouns, pronouns, ad- 
jectives, adjective pronouns, and articles. 

Commit to Memory. 

A Verb is a word which is needed to tell that 
one does something, or that one is something. Or — 
A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm. 



•OO^OO- 



LESSON XXXII. 

We can say many things that the boy is, or that 
the boy does, besides those named in the last lesson. 

Example. — The boy is in the garden. The boy 
sleeps. The boy forgot his book. The boy walked to 
town. The boy eats his breakfast. The boy resembles 
his father. 

Written Exercises. 

Make up in this way five sentences about each of 
the following nouns, telling what each one is or does, 
and in each sentence marking the verb by drawing a 
line under it. 





VERBS. 




1. Horse. 




6. Fire. 


2. Dog. 




7. Smoke. 


3. Cat. 




8. Bee. 


4. Man. 




9. Gardener, 


5. Woman. 




10. Sun. 



57 



Copy in separate lists all the nouns, pronouns, 
adjectives, adjective pronouns, and articles in the sen- 
tences which you have made. 



Oral Review. 

What is a noun ? 

What is a pronoun ? 

What is an adjective? 

What two words are called articles ? 

What is a verb ? 



SUBJECT OF THE VERB. 

LESSON XXXIII. 

It has been said that the verb asserts or tells some- 
thing of some one or of some thing. The person or 
the thing that the verb thus tells about is called the 
Subject of the verb. 

Example. — James writes a letter. The fact of 
writing a letter is asserted of James. The word which 



58 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

makes this assertion is " writes." James, therefore, is 
the Subject of the verb writes. 

Another Example. — James is a student. The fact 
of being a student is asserted of James. The word 
which makes this assertion is "is." James, therefore, 
is the Subject of the verb is. 

Note. — The Subject of the verb may be either a 
noun or a pronoun. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the verbs in the following sentences, and tell 
what noun or pronoun is the Subject of each : 

1. The apples hung upon the tree; the thief 
stole them. 

2. The book fell from the table, and the scholar 
picked it up. 

3. Vacation is pleasant to scholars ; they enjoy 
it greatly. 

4. I am in the city, where people live in crowded 
streets. 

5. He has money, you have learning. 

Oral Review. 
Eepeat the questions on page 57. 

Commit to Memory. 

The Subject of a verb is the noun or pronoun 
of which something is asserted or told. 



VERBS. 59 



LESSON XXXIV. 

The subject of a verb is said to be Nominative 
to it. 

The Nominative of the pronouns is known by its 
form. Thus : Nom. he, Poss. his, Obj. him. 

Nouns have a separate form for the Possessive, but 
not for the Nominative. 

The only way to find out whether a noun in any 
sentence is Nominative is to think whether it is the 
Subject of a verb. 

An easy way of finding out whether a noun is the 
Subject of a verb is to put who or what before the verb, 
and make a question. 

Example. — Philip, before entering the car, bought 
a ticket. 

Here the verb is " bought." Question : Who 
bought? Ans. Philip. 

Philip, then, is the Subject of the verb bought. 

Another Example. — The tree which stood in the 
meadow fell during the last storm. 

Here are two verbs, " fell," and " stood." 

What fell ? — the tree. Tree is the Subject of fell. 

What stood? — which. Which is the Subject of 
stood. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the verbs in the following sentences, and tell 
the noun or pronoun which is the subject or nomina- 
tive of each : 



60 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

1. The farmer in spring-time plants his field 
with corn. 

2. The oldest man in the city died last night. 

3. I came ; you sent for me. 

4. The burden of a great crime lies on his con- 
science. 

5. The man who took the cane is a thief. 

Oral Review. 

Kepeat the questions on page 57. 

What is the Subject of a verb? 

In what Case is the Subject of a verb ? 

How do we usually know the Nominative of a pro- 
noun? 

What easy way of finding out whether a noun is 
the Subject of a verb ? 



-oo^tjoo- 



OBJECT OF THE VERB. 

LESSON XXXV. 

Examples. — James touched Peter. James touched 
the table. 

Here, if we leave out the noun after the verb, and 
make the sentence read simply " James touched/' the 
sense is not complete. We must add some word to 
tell who or what it was that James touched. 



VERBS. 61 

Partial Definition. — A noun or a pronoun which 
is thus needed to complete the meaning of a verb is, 
in most instances, its Object. 

A noun or a pronoun which is the Object of a verb 
is said to be in the Objective Case. 

The pronouns have a distinct form for the Objec- 
tive case. Thus: Nom. he, Poss. his, Obj. him. 

Nouns have no such distinct form. The only way 
by which we can know that a noun is in the Objective 
is by finding out that it is the Object of the verb. 

An easy way to find out when a noun is the Object 
of a verb is to put whom or what after the verb, and 
make a question. 

Examples. — James touched, — whom f Ans. Peter. 
Peter, then, is the Object of touched. 

James touched, — what t Ans. Table. Table, then, 
is the Object of touched. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the verbs in the following sentences, and tell 
what noun or pronoun is the Subject of each verb ; 
also what noun or pronoun is the Object of each. 

1. The youth while at home obeyed his father. 

2. The cows last night trampled down the 
grass. 

3. A good marksman kills a bird on the wing. 

4. The scholar knew the lesson, and the teacher 
commended him. 

5. If Walter did the deed, he committed a sin. 

6 



62 LANGUAGE LESSONS 



LESSON XXXVI. 

Sometimes a noun is used after a verb to complete 
the sense, and yet is not the Object of the verb. 

A noun is not the Object of a verb, unless it ex- 
presses something quite distinct from that expressed 
by the nominative. 

Examples. — Walter is a writer. Here the word 
" writer " is only another name for Walter, and there- 
fore is not the Object of the verb. But if I say, 
Walter writes letters, " letters " is something quite 
distinct from Walter, and is the Object of the verb. 

Two verbs, is and becomes, very frequently thus 
take after them a noun which means the same thing 
as the nominative, and which therefore is not the 
Object. 

The noun after such a verb is in the same case as 
the noun or pronoun before it. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the verbs in the following sentences, and tell 
what noun or pronoun is the Subject or Nominative 
of each ; also, whether the noun following each is or 
is not its Object. 

1. The snow covered all the ground. 

2. The man in the asylum is a lunatic. 

3. He is a coward. 



VERBS. 63 

4. You told him that your father despised a 
liar. 

5. The hunter took a gun and shot twelve 
ducks. 

Commit to Memory. 

Completed Definition. — The Object of a verb is 
a noun or a pronoun which is needed to complete 
the meaning of the verb, and which also expresses 
something quite distinct from the nominative. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on pages 57, 60. 

When a noun is needed after a verb, to complete 
its meaning, what, in most instances, is the noun 
called ? — in what Case is it ? 

How do we usually know the Objective case of a 
pronoun ? 

What easy way of finding out whether a noun is in 
the Objective? 

May a noun ever be used after a verb, to complete 
its meaning, and yet not be its Object ? Give an 
example. 

What two verbs most frequently take after them a 
noun which is not in the Objective ? 

In what Case is the noun after such a verb ? 

In order that the noun after a verb may be its 
Object, what must the noun express ? 

What is the Object of a verb ? [Give the Com- 
pleted Definition.] 



64 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE 
VERBS. 

LESSON XXXVII. 

Example. — The man strikes the table. 

Here some action passes over from the man to the 
table. 

In most verbs which take an Object after them, an 
action or influence of some kind seems thus to pass 
over from the subject to the object. On this account, 
verbs of this kind are called Transitive. 

The word Transitive means passing over. 

A verb which does not require an Object to com- 
plete its meaning is called Intransitive. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the verbs in the following sentences, and tell 
which are Transitive and which are Intransitive ; tell 
also what noun or pronoun is the subject or nomi- 
native of each verb ; and what noun or pronoun is 
the object of each Transitive verb. 

1. The woodman yesterday cut the tree down. 

2. William cried because the boys broke his 
knife. 

3. Birds fly in the air because they have wings. 

4. The large tree which stands in the garden 
bears fine apples. 

5. My aquarium is large; it contains many 
fishes. 



VERBS. 65 

Commit to Memory. 

A Transitive verb is one which needs an Object 
to complete the meaning of the verb. 

An Intransitive verb is one which does not need 
an Object to complete the meaning of the verb. 

Note. — An easy way oftentimes of finding out 
whether a verb is Transitive is to try whether it 
makes sense with him, her, or it after it. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on pages 57, 60, 63. 
What is a Transitive verb ? 
What is an Intransitive verb ? 
What easy way of finding out whether a verb is 
Transitive ? 



)&Oo- 



PERSON AND NUMBER. 
LESSON XXXVIII. 

Person and Number in verbs are expressed to some 
extent by differences in form. 

Verbs have three Persons, First, Second, and Third; 
and two Numbers, Singular and Plural. 

The verb is always of the same Person and Number 
as its nominative. 

6* E 



66 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the verbs in the following sentences, and tell 
which are Transitive and which are Intransitive ; tell 
what is the Subject or Nominative of each, and if the 
verb is Transitive, what is its Object; tell also the 
Number and Person of each. 

1. I live in Philadelphia, but my sister lives in 
Boston. 

2. When we visited the city, my grandfather 
died. 

3. You are good scholars ; you know your les- 
sons. 

4. Some passengers sleep, although the engine 
draws the cars so fast. 

5. The sun above us shines brightly ; it warms 
the air. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on pages 57, 60, 63, 65. 

How are Persons and Numbers in verbs to some 
extent expressed? 

How many Persons has the verb? how many 
Numbers ? 

The verb is always of the same Person and Num- 
ber as, — what ? 




VERBS. 67 

TENSE. 

LESSON XXXIX. 

First Example. — I write a letter. This means, I 
am doing it now, at this present time. 

Second Example. — I wrote a letter. This means, 
I did write it once, in some past time. 

By changing write to wrote, the verb is made to ex- 
press a difference of time. 

This difference of form in the verb to express differ- 
ences of time is called Tense. The word Tense means 
time. 

There are a good many Tenses, or differences of 
time, expressed by verbs, but the only ones that you 
need learn now are two, the Present and the Past. 

Commit to Memory. 

Tense is the means by which verbs express dis- 
tinctions of time. 

The Present Tense expresses present time. 
The Past Tense expresses past time. 

The verb Walk. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 Pers. I walk. 1 Pers. We 

2 Pers. Thou walked. 2 Pers. You \ walk. 

3 Pers. He walks. 3 Pers. They 



68 



LANGUAGE LESSONS. 



Past Tense 

Singular. 

1 Pers. I walked. 

2 Pers. Thou walkedst, 

3 Pers. He walked. 



Plural. 

1 Pers. We 

2 Pers. You \ walked. 

3 Pers. They J 



i 



The verb Write. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1 Pers. I write. 

2 Pers. Thou writest. 

3 Pers. He writes. 



Plural. 

1 Pers. We 

2 Pers. You 

3 Pers. They 



Singular. 

1 Pers. I wrote. 

2 Pers. Thou wrotest 

3 Pers. He wrote. 



Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1 Pers. We 



1 



2 Pers. You V wrote. 

3 Pers. They J 



The verb J^w. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1 Pers. I am. 

2 Pers. Thou art. 

3 Pers. He is. 

Singular. 

1 Pers. I was. 

2 Pers. Thou was£, 

3 Pers. He was. 



Plural. 

1 Pers. We 

2 Pers. You 

3 Pers. They. 

Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1 Pers. We 

2 Pers. You 

3 Pers. They 



are. 



were, 



VERBS. 69 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the verbs in the following sentences, and tell 
whether each verb is Transitive or Intransitive ; what 
is its Nominative ; and, if it is Transitive, what is its 
object; tell also its Tense, Number, and Person. 

1. A journey from the United States to Europe 
takes some time ; it also costs much money. 

2. A voyage round Cape Horn is very tedious. 

3. Foreigners every year visit America. 

4. The horseman rode out of the town in great 
haste, but many citizens saw him. 

5. May is the month for flowers; we miss their 
sweet perfumes, when July comes with its great 
heat. 

Oral Review. 

What is a verb ? 

What is the Subject of a verb ? 

In what Case is the Subject of a verb? 

How do we usually know the Nominative of a pro- 
noun ? 

What easy way of finding out whether a noun is 
the Subject of a verb ? 

When a noun is needed after a verb to complete its 
meaning, what, in most instances, is the noun called? 
In what Case is it ? 

How do we usually know the Objective case of a 
pronoun ? 

What easy way of finding out whether a noun is in 
the Objective ? 



70 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

May a noun ever be used after a verb, to complete 
its meaning, and yet not be its Object? Give an ex- 
ample. 

What two verbs most frequently take after them 
a noun which is not in the Objective ? 

In what case is the noun after such a verb? 

In order that the noun after a verb may be its Ob- 
ject, what must the noun express? 

What is the Object of a verb ? [Completed Defini- 
tion.] 

What is a Transitive verb? what an Intransitive? 

What easy way of finding out whether a verb is 
Transitive ? 

How are Persons and Numbers in verbs to some 
extent expressed ? 

How many Persons has the verb? how many 
Numbers ? 

The verb is always of the same Person and Num- 
ber as, — what ? 

What is Tense? 

What does the Present Tense express ? the Past ? 

Give, in full, the Present and Past tenses of the 
verb walk ; of the verb write ; of the verb am. 

[To the Teacher. — At this point, the scholar should turn back 
to Lesson XXXI., and go over again carefully all the Lessons 
in Verbs before proceeding farther in advance.] 





Adverbs. 



-ooJ^Oo- 



LESSON XL. 

Example. — The boy writes plainly. 

The word plainly tells in what manner the boy 
writes. So we may say, he writes neatly, rapidly, care- 
lessly, swiftly. 

These words that are thus added or joined to a verb 
to tell how one does a thing are called Adverbs. 
They are so called because they are added to a verb. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the adverbs in the following sentences, and 
tell what verb each belongs to : 

1. The storm raged violently. 

2. A mad bull rushed furiously through the 
street. 

3. The girl played on the piano very skilfully. 

4. He resisted the robber manfully. 

5. He acted in that matter mercifully towards 

the prisoners. 

71 



72 LANGUAGE LESSONS 



LESSON XLL 

Adverbs are very numerous, and are of various 
kinds. The principal kinds are the following : 

1. Adverbs of Manner. These, which are the 
most numerous, have been already described. Most 
of them end in ly. 

The following are a few of them : newly, truly, hotly, 
coldly, fully, sharply, surely, solely, firmly. 

2. Adverbs op Place: here, there, where, hither, 
thither, whither, hence, thence, whence, &c. 

3. Adverbs of Time : now, then, when, ever, never, 
soon, hereafter, &c. 

4. Adverbs of Quantity : much, little, enough, &c. 

5. Adverbs of Direction: downward, upward, 
forward, backward, &c. 

6. Adverbs of Number : once, twice, thrice, &c. 

7. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation: 
yes, no, indeed, nay, doubtless. 

8. Adverbs of Interrogation : how, why, when, 
where, whither, whence. 

[To the Teacher. — It is not intended that the scholar should 
commit to memory the foregoing lists. The object is to help 
him in finding out the adverbs in the sentences which he ex- 
amines.] 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the adverbs in the following sentences, and 
tell what verb each adverb belongs to : 



ADVERBS. 73 

1. I much desire to depart immediately. 

2. The clock struck twice ; he then hastily re- 
treated. 

3. He was there then, but he left the place after- 
wards, and immediately went back to his home. 

4. Why do you write so hastily ? How can you 
expect to write well, unless you begin soon, and 
persevere steadily ? 

5. If you rise early and retire late, you will 
sleep little. 

Commit to Memory. 

Adverbs are of various kinds. 
The principal kinds of adverbs are those of 
Manner, Place, and Time. 



>XK< 



LESSON XLIL 

Adverbs, though chiefly joined to verbs, are often 
joined to adjectives, and even to other adverbs. 

Example. — A truly wise man. The adverb truly 
is joined to the adjective wise. 

Example. — They walked very rapidly. The ad- 
verb very is joined to the adverb rapidly. 

An adverb is said to qualify or describe the word 
to which it is thus joined. 



74 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the adverbs in the following sentences, and 
tell what word each adverb qualifies, and whether the 
word is a verb, an adjective, or an adverb : 

1. The lady sang remarkably well. 

2. A thoroughly truthful man never wilfully 
deceives. 

3. A much greater number was there. 

4. As they went very seldom, it was much more 
easy to refuse. 

5. To speak fluently is vastly less important 
than to speak altogether correctly. 

Commit to Memory. 

An Adverb is a w r ord added to a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb, to qualify or describe it. 

Oral Review. 

What is a Noun ? 
What is a Pronoun ? 
What is an Adjective? 

What eight words are called Adjective Pronouns? 
What two words are called Articles ? 
What is a Verb ? 
What is an Adverb ? 

What are the three principal kinds of Adverbs ? 
Kepeat five adverbs of Manner ; five of Place ; five 
of Time. 




Conjunctions 



-o-o>Q<Oo- 



LESSON XLIIL 

First Example. — John and James are sick. 

Here the word " and " connects the noun " John " 
with the noun " James/' 

Second Example. — The teacher dismissed the school, 
and the scholars went home. 

Here "and" connects the sentence "The teacher 
dismissed the school" with the sentence " The scholars 
went home." 

A word used in this way to connect words or 
sentences is called a Conjunction. 

The principal Conjunctions are the following : and, 
as, also, because, for, if, since, that, therefore, wherefore, 
or, nor, but, yet, than, lest, unless, though, although, &c. 



Written Exercises. 

Copy the Conjunctions in the following sentences, 
and tell what words or sentences each one connects : 

75 



76 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

1. Horace remained to the close, although he 
was not well. 

2. Philip and Thomas went to the city together, 
but each came back by himself. 

3. He assured me that he knew the lesson per- 
fectly. 

4. I will receive the parcel if he sends it. 

5. Charles and Mary went down nearly to the 
foot of the class, but Thomas and Lucy went up 
almost to the head. 

Copy in separate lists all the nouns, adjectives, 
pronouns, verbs, and adverbs. 

Commit to Memory. 
A Conjunction is a word used to connect words 
and sentences. 

Oral Review. 

Repeat the questions on page 74. 
What is a Conjunction ? 
Eepeat five Conjunctions. 





Prepositions 



>>*Koo- 



LESSON XLIV. 

Example. — Dig the ground with a spade. 

Here with shows some relation between spade and 
dig. One is the act, the other is the instrument. 

Example. — The book of the teacher. 

Here of shows some relation between teacher and 
book. One belongs to the other. 

Example. — The man under the tree. 

Here under shows some relation between tree and 
man. It expresses the position of one in reference to 
the other. 

A word thus put before a noun or a pronoun, to 
show its relation to some other word, is called a 
Preposition. 

It is so called because it is put before the noun or 
pronoun. 

The word Preposition means something put before. 



78 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

The following are some of the Prepositions most 
frequently used : with, from, to, in, Into, by, through, at, 
of, on, over, under. 

The noun or pronoun that comes after the prepo- 
sition is in the Objective case. 

Written Exercises. 

Copy the Prepositions in the following sentences, 
and in connection with each Preposition tell the noun 
or pronoun that comes after it in the Objective case : 

1. He went with me to the fields, and there we 
filled our baskets with berries. 

2. It is a part of wisdom to remain in silence 
when in the presence of those older and wdser 
than we. 

3. The man went by crooked paths, and through 
them he finally escaped detection. 

4. A fresh stream of cold water runs by the 
gardener's house down into his neighbor's woods. 

5. From them I learned that the ox had gored 
the unhappy girl to death with his horns. 

Copy all the Transitive verbs, and tell what noun 
or pronoun is the Object of each. 

Copy all the Intransitive verbs ; all the adverbs ; 
all the conjunctions. 

Commit to Memory. 

A Preposition is a word put before a noun or a 
pronoun to show its relation to some other word. 



PREPOSITIONS. 79 

Oral Review. 

What is a noun ? 

What is a pronoun ? 

What is an adjective ? 

What two words are called articles ? 

What is a verb ? 

What is an adverb ? 

What are the three principal kinds of adverbs ? 

Repeat five adverbs of Manner; five of Place; 
five of Time. 

What is a conjunction? 

Repeat five conjunctions. 

What is a preposition ? 

Why is it so called ? 

Repeat five of the prepositions most frequently 
used. 

In what case is the noun or pronoun that comes 
after a preposition? 





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